Reframing Power in Learner-Centered Teaching Model among the
Large Power Distance Cultures.
Gillian Edube.
“Culture defines
appropriate ways for people to interact, how learning institutions function,
and what it even means to learn. Teaching, therefore, is a cultural activity. Our
culture greatly shapes the expectations we bring to the teaching-learning
experiences” (Ott 2021, 4–7). The cultural perspective of teachers influences how they
teach. This paper is an effort to make meaning of
learner-centered learning in Large Power Distance cultures (Uganda & Kenya). The author takes a keen look at the basic underlying assumptions beneath the
Large Power Distance (LPD), examines power through a Biblical (Creation, Fall,
and Redemption) framework, and seeks to reframe power dynamics in teaching. How
does a teacher from a Large Power Distance (LPD) make meaning of
learner-centered teaching?
Definitions of terms
Culture -The culture of a
group can be defined as the accumulated shared learning of that group as it
solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, which has
worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel, and behave in relation to
those problems. This accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs,
values, and behavioral norms that come to be taken for granted as basic
assumptions and eventually drop out of awareness (Schein
2017, 23–24).
Power- “the ability to
affect the behavior of others consciously and deliberately” (Hardy 1985, 385).
Power distance- “the extent to which the
less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect
and accept that power is distributed unequally” (Hofstede 2010, 166).
Power Distance Themes
According to the most
well-known research on culture by Hofstede, power distance is among the four
dimensions of culture. Hofstede studied 74 countries with over 100,000 samples,
and he listed four dimensions of culture: power distance, collectivism vs.
individualism, femininity versus masculinity, and uncertain avoidance. According to Hofstede, different country’s power distance occurs within a spectrum
with (small or large) distance. East Africa’s Power
Distance Index score is ranked 64%, thus falling in the category of Large Power
Distance culture (Hofstede 2010, 57–60, 166).
Moreau further expounds
the definition and argues that at the individual level, power distance is the
difference between the extent to which a boss (teacher) can determine the
subordinate’s (learners) behavior and the extent to which a subordinate (Learner)
can determine the boss’s (teacher’s) behavior. Moreau draws a comparison
between large and small power distance. First, he notes that Large Power
Distance (LPD) cultures idealize the maintenance of power. Teachers are seen as
persons with power and authority; therefore, they are respected. It is crucial
in LPD cultures to use titles to demonstrate respect to teachers. Second,
Moreau explains how the people below (learners) will develop a dependent
relationship with those in power because they are seen as a source of wisdom
and all knowledge. Third, Moreau says in LPD cultures, teachers manage by
decree, and those under them follow. In teaching, LPD cultures will prefer
lectures as a mode of instruction (Moreau 2014, 166–67).
Culturally responsive
teachers should critically analyze their fundamental underlying assumptions
that influence teaching. Schein argues that for anyone to understand a
culture, they must examine it in three levels (Schein 2017, 23–24)
a) Artifacts- Observable
outward behaviors of a culture (In LPD cultures, we observe the use of
lectures, content-oriented curriculums, and almost no interaction between
teachers and learners.
b) Espoused beliefs
& Values-ideologies, ideals, rationalizations, aspirations, and goals
established in cultures. An example of this could be the saying, “Teachers are
never wrong.”
c) Basic underlying
assumptions - unconscious, less tangible, and less visible assumptions that
shape our beliefs and values and ultimately manifest in our behaviors.
Below are some of the
fundamental issues that form the Basic underlying assumptions of LPD cultures.
Description of the
Basic Underlying Assumptions of LPD.
Dependency and
hierarchical teaching structures - As observed earlier, learners in LPD cultures
are dependent on the power figures (teachers). The teacher does all the work,
and the learner’s responsibility is to come to class and receive the knowledge. Because of the power distribution, there is a clear hierarchical structure
between the teacher and learner in the classroom. Although they might have more
knowledge than the teacher in a learning environment, the learners must save
face their teachers and remain silent. Shaming techniques are used for
learners who do not show dependency on the teacher and seem to know a bit more
than the teacher.
Power embodied in
teachers - Honor, and status are ascribed to the teachers by virtue of their
positions. The teacher oversees the classroom and provides strict orders to be
followed. The teacher initiates all communication, and learners only speak when
invited to. Because power is ascribed, the teacher cannot share it with others. The teacher only decides when to invite learners to share in the learning experience. Learners cannot contradict the teacher, especially publicly but must seek ways
of not directly critiquing the teacher. Teachers will use shaming to silence
learners who criticize their views publicly. Teachers outline the intellectual
path which the learners must follow. They transfer knowledge, wisdom and trace
the intellectual path for the learners who must obey. Because knowledge,
experience, and skills are considered personal, they give it out sparingly. This stored wisdom forms who they are and gives them a status of respect in
society. Indeed, the older the teacher, the more respect you attract.
Concept of respect - Due to hierarchical structures,
it is disrespectful to dialogue with someone older than you are, worst still
your teacher. Your teacher is always right, and learners have no audacity to
question the teacher. The teacher is not supposed to socialize with learners
outside the classroom. Suppose the teacher attempts that, it is received with
suspicion. Since teachers have more power, it is assumed that learners have
less power than teachers. Power is seen as a limited resource that people must
fight to get (Moreau 2014, 164). Becoming a
teacher is prestigious because it gives you power over learners. The older the
teacher, the more the respect. Hofstede observes that the families perpetuate
this respect. The parent-child relationship is replaced with a teacher-learner
relationship at school. Like parents’ teachers are treated with respect or even
fear.
The fundamental values
are carried from home to school (Hofstede
2010, 69). Because the teacher is seen as a parent, they can discipline or punish the learner
in school.
Group conformity - Influenced by the
collective nature of LPD cultures, learners don’t expect their peers to
distinguish themselves from the other learners by looking smarter. Students are
not encouraged to think critically as individuals, but they think as an in-group. children belong to the community. “It takes a clan to raise a child.” Therefore,
this means that one cannot have the liberty to make personal decisions but
needs to consult at several levels.
Learner-centered
teaching.
In defining
learner-centered teaching, Weimer organizes strategies and approaches to
learner-centered teaching into five key aspects (Weimer 2013, 10–12). Learner-centered teaching: a) Changes the role
of the teacher. Weimer argues that learner-centered teachers do not tell
students what they should do and what they should know.
c) Teachers use the content to develop knowledge instead
of covering it.
d) Teachers make
students more responsible for learning.
e) Teachers revisit the
purpose and process of evaluation.
Weimer demonstrates the importance
of keeping the focus on learners. However, the focus is not as though learners
are customers whose needs ought to be satisfied and are always right. The focus
needs to stay on learners and the institutional strategies that support their
learning effort.
Three Principles/practices
Learning is socially mediated, and we must have
a cultural framework of teaching and learning (Ott
2021, 54–56). Developing a cultural framework is a great idea and is
helpful for teaching and learning. Brookfield rightly says that we cannot
critically analyze the Basic underlying assumptions in a vacuum (Brookfield
2005, 56). Knight argues that for Christian educators, the question is not a
matter of how close we can come to what might be defined as objectionable. Instead, how to select the very best content, styles, and methods that
accomplish the main goal (Christlikeness) in the light of what we believe (Knight 2006, 230).
According to Knight’s argument, Drawing A represents a classroom in which the primary emphasis is on the literary qualities of the material. The teacher uses the Bible or ideas from the Bible from time to time as asides. On the other hand, Drawing B represents the study of literature in the context of the biblical perspective and what the message means in terms of humanity’s universal and personal dilemma. It views the literature used from the distinctive vantage point of Christianity. The challenge for the teacher is to approach literary study so that it leads to seeing human reality and the world as it is -sinful and suffering but not beyond hope and the redeeming grace of a caring God (Knight 2006, 232).
This paper will adopt the Creation- fall- redemption doctrines to build an overall framework in the metaphysics of teaching and learning.
a) Creation,
Fall, and Redemption framework.
Creation- God, who is the
creator of everything, is a living God. He is infinite, self-existing, and
without origin. He created a good and perfect universe, including humankind
(male and female), created in His image and likeness. Both learners and
teachers are uniquely created in God’s image and likeness, and they are worth
respect, dignity, and care (Ledbetter
2016, 18). He created a perfect universe, including humankind (male and female). Being
finite and imperfect does not mean that human beings can be less than the image
of their creator. Human beings are incapable of finding God independently
(Psalms 32: 6). Both teachers and learners can discover the truth, but they are
not the originator of truth (John 16:13). Power was created by God and inbuilt as a good
gift to humanity.
Fall- With the human fallen nature, the understanding of self in
relationship to God and others was distorted by Satan. Due to the distortion, power
is fraught with danger and pitfalls. The most egregious sins of power stem from
pride, self-ambition, control, misuse of power to an individual’s ends, and idolizing
power. Part of the fallen nature is the view of power which is seen as the
source of meaning and significance. Ledbetter defines evil as any evil spoiling
of shalom, any deviation from the way God wants things to be. (Ledbetter 2016,19).
Teachers and learners possess a distorted view of reality which exhibits the
need for a savior and God’s efficacy in the teacher’s and learners’ life. (Lingenfelter
2008, 107)
Redemption- Central in the Bible
narrative is the redemption story- the restoration of relationships with God and
humankind. Christ’s Incarnation atonement and resurrection are central to the
redemption of any teacher. We see the power of individual character redemption
as well as his people. Power is among the “all things” that God is reconciling back to
himself. We whose image of God has been restored participate as image-bearers
in restoring human power and being good stewards of power.
Through the work of Christ, teachers and learners receive the new
birth, and they get transformed with the renewing of their minds so they can
test and approve what God’s will is his good, pleasing, and perfect will. (Romans
12.2, Philippians 2:5-8, 2nd Corinthians 5:17).
Through Jesus Christ,
Christian teachers and learners’ image of God is restored, and they, in return,
are supposed to be image-bearers.
b) Pilgrim
Teaching - Metaphorical description
Plueddemann, inspired by
John Bunyan, develops a pilgrim’s progress metaphor in education. In this
analogy, both the teacher and the learner are fellow travelers. They both have
much to contribute to the journey. The pilgrim teacher has more experience on
the path and greater knowledge of map reading (Plueddemann 2018, 15). The model creates an environment that
cultivates sharing of power with safety. The pilgrim teacher’s experiences,
knowledge, and wisdom are put in use outrightly. The metaphor looks experiential,
which encourages the learner. The teacher’s understanding is that the learners
should make meaning of the journey. The teacher’s wisdom and experience are
utilized and are valued. The pilgrim teaching implies Partnering with learners
and not necessarily transferring power.
3. Power giving leadership
Colwill argues that
power can denote different abilities: to
exercise strength (weightlifting), express creativity (playing Jazz), or
generate energy (flow of electricity from a power plant). She argues that the
essence of power is “to be able” (Colwill
2022, 24). Power
is the ability to affect something or to be affected by something” (Silber
1979, 191).
Yuki distinguishes power
modes and argues that power can be viewed as controlling followers coercively “power-over
covertly.” Power can also be seen as giving individuals the opportunity to
experience power-sharing “power-with.” “Power-to” is experienced when followers
are empowered and co-worker relationships are encouraged. Yuki argues that
there is also “power -from,” which is the ability to resist the power of others
by effectively fending off their unwanted demands. Yuki invites leaders to
consider “power with” (Yuki 2013, 209). Brookfield, in his work, invites
teachers to look at the possibility of converting “power over” learners into “power
with” (Brookfield 2005, 120).
Colwill introduces the
concept of “using power for good,” which she says is life-giving. If the essence
of power is “to be able,” then we have a choice to use our power for good and
not to harm. Power used for the common good embraces the value of human dignity
(Colwill 2022, 54–55). In the pilgrim model, the pilgrim teacher
holds power, and how they use that power determines the journey. Power in a
pilgrim teaching occurs from a relationship standpoint.
Cultural reflection on Learning
styles.
Moreau describes two major orientations towards
learning styles. First, information-focused approaches involve how
people take in and process information. Moreau argues that people who promote
learning styles assume that learners take in information either by concrete
experience or abstract thinking (Moreau
2014, 306). Ott argues that LPD cultures are mostly concrete and not abstract thinkers (Ott
2021, 90–92). Second are intelligent, focused approaches. Moreau uses
Gardener’s scheme of type of intelligence as the key to unlocking learning preferences. He explains that it depends on our native capacity in the information we can
process and use creatively. He argues that Small Distance cultures will mostly
use intelligent, focused approaches. His argument is that though both are
legitimate processes of learning. By default, teachers use their preferred
style and assume that it’s the best fit for all learners. Therefore, good
teachers need to proactively develop a range of skills that promote and
encourage learning (Moreau 2014, 308).
Reframing
learner-centered approaches for LPD culture
For teachers to grow in their capacity to teach,
they need to develop skills , strategies, and redemptive
techniques. Use of stories and case
studies
Ott argues that one of
the skills that teachers in LPD cultures need to develop is stories and case
studies. The message in these methods is easily visualized, and principles are
embedded in the actors and actions that are context-specific. There would
therefore be a moral behind the story. At the same time, the moral has meaning
because of the story. Stories and case studies also help learners organize
information in a meaningful context instead of memorizing facts and pieces as
isolated pieces of information (Ott
2021, 90–92). Through this learning experience, learners can actively
participate in the learning process by analyzing the case and discovering their
dynamics. Since case studies are not always straightforward, learners need
instructions from the teacher, and therefore teachers can carefully facilitate
discussion and the learning process.
Pilgrim teachers
in LPD cultures could adapt this method to reduce the personal embodiment of
power. Stories will distance the teacher from the issue they are talking about
and introduce other players. The teacher is not the hero, but it’s the moral of
the story that the learners carry for the day. The learners can also
discuss the story and share stories to make meaning of the content
they learn. This strategy changes the balance of power in the classroom and
gives students control and responsibility. One of the assessments teachers
could use here is to ask students to develop a case study using their knowledge.
2.
Contextual Oral Literature
It is essential to use oral literature for this culture to contextualize the learning process. Using
audio and videos materials that people from those cultures author. There is a lot of creativity and
variations that come with oral literature. The LPD
culture this paper talks about is oral. Inviting elders to go and tell their
stories in class is a rich way of sharing content. The pilgrim teacher
acknowledges the experience of older people and is keen to include that. The
learners could also record this source of knowledge and use it as a reference. This
method is also a contextualization of the content. The use of field trips
to culturally contextual sites would also be very relevant. The pilgrim
learners during a field trip can interact with the pilgrim teacher because it
is informal. The pilgrim teacher,
through such trips, creates natural critical thinking environments through
experiential learning.
3.
Pedagogical designs
Not all good teachers
use the same technique, but good teachers always find ways to induce creative
tension whatever technique they use (Palmer
2017, 76–85); what palmer refers to as creative tension looks like Bains
natural critical thinking environment (Bain 2004, 26). Palmers
talks about making peace and practicing paradox in the classroom.
a) Bounded and open space- Palmer
argues that space with no boundaries is no space. Boundaries remind the pilgrim
teacher that the journey has a destination. On the other hand, openness reminds
the pilgrim teacher that there are many ways to reach the destination. Deeper
still, the openness of learning space reminds us that the destination we plot
at the offset may not be the one we will reach, but we must stay alert for
clues to our actual destination as we travel together (Palmer
2017, 77). The pilgrim teacher must see themselves as participants with God in restoring
the image of God in the learners. Teachers in LPD cultures need to steward the
power given to them by God and use it for good. The fact that the community ascribes
power by their title, makes it easier to create boundaries. The end goal of
pilgrim teaching must be Christlikeness which can only be enabled through the
Holy Spirit. The teacher, therefore, must see themselves as role models who
should model redemptive teaching.
b) Hospitable and charged-the
environment must be inviting, safe and trustworthy. Palmer talks about creating
a hospitable environment but at the same time fencing the free space we
provide. LPD cultures, because of their collective nature, are warm and
hospitable. The pilgrim teacher in LPD culture could utilize informal and
non-formal methods of teaching. In LDP cultures, learners will find it easy to
join the teacher to do an activity as long as there is food. The pilgrim
teacher, though, needs to create territorial marking to keep the learners
focused. To allow critical thinking, the teacher could have them share their
experience on an issue that they care for. The teacher could then ask
triggering questions to that effect and let the learners discuss. Holding the
tension between making the uncomfortable safe and not creating a comfortable
space is a desirable role of the teacher.
c) Inviting
individual and group voice- LPD cultures can easily conform to group
thinking because of dependency and collective culture. The teacher allowing the
learners to share their story differentiates and individuates the way they
interpret the knowledge. The teacher must further facilitate learners to place
their voices within the group. Conformity should be allowed but with
individuation. Learners must sense that their stories contribute to the group
story and the larger end goal story. The environment should be safe enough for
learners to question each other’s individual thoughts. If the learners trust
the community, honest group discussions and dialogues can result in collective
solutions. In assessment, the teacher could require learners to have group oral
and written reports.
d) Learning in
solitude and community-Palmer’s discussion on knowing in a community
alludes to the fact that reality is a web of communal relationships. We
can know reality only by being in a community with it (Palmer 2017, 95–103). Becoming part of a pedagogical community
requires commitment from both the teachers and learners. The institutions as
well need to set proper systems that support collaboration and dialogue. The
value of community that LPD cultures have should be encouraged. Palmer calls it
the community of truth because it keeps learners honest with each other. Bain
says that people tend to learn most effectively when there is a supportive
environment with agency (Bain 2004,108). To cultivate a community of inquiry,
Garrison suggests three core components that have to be considered: Social
presence (personal and purposeful relationships), Cognitive Presence
(understanding through collaboration), and teaching presence (instructional
design and facilitation) (Garrison 2017, 76)
e) Integrity and Identity-
Palmer argues that to become a better teacher, we must nurture a sense of
self that both does and does not depend on the response of others- and that is
a true paradox. Christian teachers must take the journey of their nature and
seek the help of others in seeing themselves as they are (Palmer
2017, 76). God’s word must guide any reflection that Christian teachers do. Ott argues
that we tend to teach others, in the same manner we were taught, and if we
change our teaching methods, it will be in ways that feel the most natural to
us (Ott 2021, 4). Our transformation through
Christ as Christian teachers in LPD cultures must infiltrate and guide our
learning preferences, cultural backgrounds, and even personalities. Our knowledge in Christ
shapes who we are being, and as an overflow of who we are, we teach. Palmer
rightly argues that good teaching comes from the identity and integrity of the
teacher and is an overflow of their formation (Palmer
2017, 15).
Conclusion
Christian teachers are
image-bearers whose image of God is redeemed and now participate with God in
bringing redemption to the learners. Their new perspective must influence how
they structure the curriculum, learning environment and evaluate the learners;
redemptively. In participation with God, they bring redemption to learners
whose views are distorted. They also must seek to bring redemption to parts of
their cultures that need redemption. Therefore, they must identify the basic
underlying assumptions in teaching and learning in their culture and establish
what needs redemption. They must also be in a place to uphold assumptions that
are valuable in the sight of God. Learner-centered teaching will therefore
require some configuration of power, but it is not a removal of power. There
are aspects of learner-centered teaching that will remain distinctively
cultural and therefore differ from other cultures. There are other aspects of
learner-centered teaching that will be like other cultures.
Through the Pilgrim teaching metaphor, the teacher in LPD culture could evaluate and role-play the pilgrim teacher. As pilgrim teachers, they could spend time making meaning of learner-centered approaches to use their power for good. Learners in this culture must reclaim reason and see themselves as God see them. They must contribute to the learning communities God provides their way. Whiteman says that “Teachers must communicate in a way that makes sense to people within their local cultural context in a way their deepest needs are met, their worldview penetrated but allow them to remain in their culture” (Darrel Whiteman 1997 23).
Reference List
Bain, Ken. Essay. In What the Best College
Teachers Do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
Garrison, D. R. 2017. Essay. In E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Community of Inquiry Framework
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Taylor & Francis Group.
Knight, George R. 2006. Essay. In Philosophy & Education: An Introduction in Christian
Perspective. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
Plueddemann, James E. Teaching across Cultures: Contextualizing
Education. Intervarsity Press, 2018
Whiteman, Darrell L. 2003. Essay. In Anthropology and Mission: The Incarnational Connection. Chicago: Catholic Theological Union.
Yukl, Gary A. 2013. “Leadership in Organizations.” 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson
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